Mayan Pyramid of Kukulkan - The Castle
Mayan Pyramid of Kukulkan
Chichen Itza is a large pre-Columbian archaeological site in Yucatan, Mexico built by the Maya civilization. The Maya name "Chich'en Itza" means "At the mouth of the well of the Itza (people)". Although this was the usual name for the site in pre-Columbian times, it is also referred to in the ancient chronicles as Uucyabnal, meaning "Seven Great Rulers". Chichen" contains many fine stone buildings in various states of preservation; the buildings were formerly used as temples, palaces, stages, markets, baths, and ballcourts.
Mayan Pyramid of Kukulkan
Dominating the center of Chichen is the Temple of Kukulcan (the Maya name for Quetzalcoatl), often referred to as El Castillo (the castle). This step pyramid with a ground plan of square terraces with stairways up each of the 4 sides to the temple on top.
Great sculptures of Plumed Serpents run down the sides of the northern staircase, and are set off by shadows from the corner tiers on the Spring and Fall equinox. It was practice in Mesoamerican cities to periodically build larger and grander temple pyramids atop older ones, and this is one such example.
Thanks to archeologists, a doorway at the base of the north stairway leads to a tunnel, from which one can climb the steps of the earlier version of El Castillo inside the current one, up to the room on the top where you can see King Kukulcan's Jaguar Throne, carved of stone and painted red with jade spots.
Built into one of the exterior walls of the ballcourt is the Temple of the Jaguar, which features another jaguar throne since this one was not buried for a thousand years, its red paint and jade spots are long since gone. Behind this platform is a walled inscription which depicts a tzompantli (rack of impaled human skulls) in relief.
The 'Temple of the Warriors' and its adjacent 'Temple of the Jaguar' are very impressive ruins of the complex. A massive temple structure, surrounded by hundreds of columns is carved with reliefs. The columns continue on into the jungle, that part of the temple still has not been restored.
This celestial observatory denotes seasons based on solar alignment at different times of the year.
The Nunnery
The Mayans were great sportsmen and build huge ballcourts to play their games. The Great Ballcourt of Chichén Itzá is 545 feet long and 225 feet wide overall. It has no vault, no discontinuity between the walls and is totally open to the sky. As we approach a silent sentinel stands guard.
Each end has a raised "temple" area. A whisper from end can be heard clearly at the other end 500 feet away and through the length and breath of the court. The sound waves are unaffected by wind direction or time of day/night. Archaeologists engaged in the reconstruction noted that the sound transmission became stronger and clearer as they proceeded. In 1931 Leopold Stokowski spent 4 days at the site to determine the acoustic principals that could be applied to an open-air concert theater he was designing. Stokowski failed to learn the secret. To this day it has not been explained.
The massive Kukulcan pyramid called 'El Castillo' - the castle - is roughly at the center of the site. Climbing it is quite a challenge and those who make it are rewarded with a spectacular view of the city and surrounding country side. Inside the pyramid, the corridors and chambers are hot and humid.
Handclaps evoke chirped echoes from the staircases of the Pyramid of Kukulkan at Chichen Itza. The physics of the chirped echo can be explained quite simply as periodic reflections from stepfaces. The chirped echo sounds much like the primary call of the Mayan sacred bird, the resplendent Quetzal.
This magnificent bird, now near extinction, has for thousands of years represented the 'spirit of the Maya'. Spirits, in many traditions, speak in echoes, lacking a body, just pure spirit.
A Mayan glyph from the Dresden Codex makes the connection between the pyramid of Kukulkan and the Quetzal bird. This glyph shows Kukulkan/Quetzalcoatl , the "sovereign plumed serpent" with a gigantic Quetzal behind him. The Quetzal bird may have represened the spirit of the Maya. Spirits often speak in echoes. It therefore seems most appropriate that the spirit echo of the Pyramid of Kukulkan would speak in the echo-voice of the Quetzal.
Today the Quetzal plays an important part in modern Mayan culture. Many modern Maya live in Guatemala, and in the Mexican States of Chiapas and Quintan Roo. The Quetzal is the unit of currency in Guatemala. The Guatemalan government issues a prestigious award named "The Order of the Quetzal." Could the Maya have intentionally coded the sound of their sacred bird into the pyramid architecture?
In the millenium since this pyramid was built, though the plaster has eroded from the limestone staircases, the sound is still recognizable.
Tzintzuntzan is a city in the state of Michoacan, Mexico. It stands on the eastern shore of Lake Pátzcuaro, about 15 km north of the city of Patzcuaro and about 60 km west of state capital Morelia, and at some 2050 m above sea level. It serves as the administrative seat for the surrounding municipality of the same name and, in the 2000 census, reported a population of 3,610 people.
The city was founded in the 13th century by the Native American Tarascan or Purepecha nation, in whose language the name means "Place of the Hummingbirds".
In the last years of the 15th century it became the capital of the Tarascan league, replacing nearby Ihuatzio. During this time the Purepecha successfully repulsed an invasion by the Aztecs.
T h e P r e - C o l u m b i a n c i t y o f T z i n t z u n t z a n c o v e r e d a n a r e a o f a b o u t 7 k ms . T h e s i t e , w h i c h s t a n d s o n a h i l l s i d e a b o v e t h e m o d e r n t o w n , h a s t h e r e m a i n s o f m a n y s t e p p y r a m i d s o f a d e s i g n t y p i c a l l y u s e d b y t h e P u r e p e c h a i n t h e i r r i t u a l b u i l d i n g s , k n o w n l o c a l l y a s yac a t a s ( b y e x t e n s i o n , t h e p r e s e n t - d a y a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e i s a l s o k n o w n a s " L a s Yac a t a s " ) .
T h e T z i n t z u n t z a n yac a t a s a r e o f s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t s h a p e s , s o m e r e c t a n g u l a r , s o m e o v a l o r c i r c u l a r , a n d o t h e r s i n t h e d i s t i n c t i v e T a r a s c a n " T " s h a p e . T h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e a n c i e n t c i t y i s e s t i m a t e d t o h a v e p e a k e d a t s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n 2 5 , 0 0 0 t o 3 5 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e .
T z i n t z u n t z a n w a s s t i l l t h e T a r a s c a n c a p i t a l w h e n t h e S p a n i a r d s a r r i v e d i n 1 5 2 2 . F i r s t c o n t a c t , l e d b y C r i s tu b a l d e O l i d , w a s p e a c e f u l , b u t w h e n a s e c o n d S p a n i s h e x p e d i t i o n l e d b y N uno d e G u z man a r r i v e d i n 1 5 2 9 , C h i e f t a i n T a n g a n x o a n w a s b u r n e d a l i v e a n d t h e c i t y l a r g e l y d i s m a n t l e d t o p r o v i d e s t o n e s f o r R o m a n C a t h o l i c t e m p l e s a n d c i v i c b u i l d i n g s , m o s t n o t a b l y t h e l a r g e 1 6 t h c e n t u r y F r a n c i s c a n M o n a s t e r y o f S a n t a A n a . F o l l o w i n g t h e d i s g r a c e a n d r e c a l l o f N uno de Guzman , V a s c o d e Q u i r o g a w a s s e n t t o t h e r e g i o n , a n d T z i n t z u n t z a n s e r v e d a s t h e h e a d q u a r t e r s o f S p a n i s h p o w e r i n t h e a r e a u n t i l t h e b i s h o p r i c w a s r e l o c a t e d t o Patz c u a r o i n 1 5 4 0 .
T h e m o d e r n t o w n o f T z i n t z u n t z a n i s k n o w n f o r t h e b a s k e t r y a n d w e a v i n g p r o d u c e d t h e r e . T h e M o n a s t e r y o f S a n t a A n a i s a l s o s t i l l s t a n d i n g . I t i s h o m e t o s e v e r a l a l l e g e d l y m i r a c u l o u s r e l i c s a n d i c o n s a n d i s r e p u t e d t o h a v e g r o w i n g i n i t s g r o u n d s w h a t w e r e t h e f i r s t o l i v e t r e e s t o b e p l a n t e d i n A m e r i c a .
Teotihuacan was the largest-known pre-Columbian city in the Americas, and the name is also used to refer to the civilization this city dominated, which at its greatest extent included much of Mesoamerica.
T h e c i t y w a s l o c a t e d i n w h a t i s n o w t h e S a n J u a n T e o t i h u a ca n m u n i c i p a l i t y ( p o p u l a t i o n 4 4 , 6 5 3 a s p e r 2 0 0 0 c e n s u s f i g u r e s ) , i n t h e S t a t e o f Mex i c o , M e x i c o , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 0 k m ( a b o u t 2 5 m i l e s ) n o r t h e a s t o f M e x i c o C i t y a t . I t c o v e r s a t o t a l s u r f a c e a r e a o f 8 2 . 6 6 k ms.
The name Teotihuacan was given by the Aztec centuries after the fall of the city, and is translated as "the place where men became gods".
The original name of the city is unknown but recently the glyph that represents the city has been translated as "The place of the precious sacrifice".
There is archaeological evidence that Teotihuacan had been a multi-ethnic place, with distinct Zapotec, Mixtec, Maya and what seems to be Nahua quarters.
The Totonacs have always maintained that they were the ones who built it, a story that was corroborated later by the Aztecs. The city was also anciently referred to as Tollan, a name also used centuries later for the Toltec capital of Tula (Tollan Xicocotitlan in Nahuatl).
There is archaeological evidence that Teotihuacan had been a multi-ethnic place, with distinct Zapotec, Mixtec, Maya and what seems to be Nahua quarters.
The Totonacs have always maintained that they were the ones who built it, a story that was corroborated later by the Aztecs. The city was also anciently referred to as Tollan, a name also used centuries later for the Toltec capital of Tula (Tollan Xicocotitlan in Nahuatl).
History
" T e o t i h u a c · n " ( t e h - o h - t e e - w a h - k a h n ) i s a N a h u a t l n a m e , t r a n s l a t e d a s " c i t y w h e r e m e n b e c o m e g o d s . " A c c o r d i n g t o l e g e n d i t w a s w h e r e t h e G o d s g a t h e r e d t o p l a n t h e c r e a t i o n o f m a n .
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f T e o t i h u a ca n c o m m e n c e d a r o u n d 3 0 0 B C , w i t h t h e P y r a m i d o f t h e S u n b u i l t b y 1 5 0 B C . T h e c i t y r e a c h e d i t s z e n i t h a p p r o x . 1 5 0-4 5 0 A D , w h e n i t w a s t h e c e n t e r o f a n i n f l u e n t i a l c u l t u r e . A t i t s h e i g h t t h e c i t y c o v e r e d o v e r 3 0 k ms , a n d p r o b a b l y h o u s e d a p o p u l a t i o n o f o v e r 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e , p o s s i b l y a s m a n y a s 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 .
T e o t i h u a can w a s a n i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e o f o b s i d i a n a n d t h e r e w a s e x t e n s i v e t r a d e w i t h o t h e r r e g i o n s o f M e s o a m e r i c a .
T h e c i t y ' s b r o a d c e n t r a l a v e n u e , c a l l e d " A v e n u e o f t h e D e a d " ( a t r a n s l a t i o n f r o m i t s N a h u a t l n a m e M i c c a o h t l i ) , i s s t i l l f l a n k e d b y i m p r e s s i v e c e r e m o n i a l a r c h i t e c t u r e , i n c l u d i n g t h e i m m e n s e P y r a m i d o f t h e S u n ( s e c o n d l a r g e s t i n t h e N e w W o r l d a f t e r t h e G r e a t P y r a m i d o f C h o l u l a ) , t h e P y r a m i d o f t h e M o o n , t h e T e m p l e o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l o r T e m p l e o f t h e F e a t h e r e d S e r p e n t , a n d m a n y l e s s e r t e m p l e s a n d p a l a c e s .
T h e " P y r a m i d o f t h e S u n " w a s i n r e a l i t y d e d i c a t e d t o T l a l o c , t h e g o d o f r a i n , a n d w a s b u i l t o v e r a c a v e , m o s t l i k e l y a s a c r e d c a v e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e c a v e c o n t e n t w a s s t o l e n , p o s s i b l y i n P r e - C o l u m b i a n t i m e s .
T h e " P y r a m i d o f t h e M o o n " w a s d e d i c a t e d t o T l a l o c's c o n s o r t C h a l c h i h u i t l i c u e , g o d d e s s o f l a k e s a n d s t r e a m s , a n d w a s u s e d a l s o a s a b u r i a l s i t e f o r i m p o r t a n t p e o p l e .
The Moon Pyramid is located at the northern end of the Avenue of the Dead, which was the main axis of the city. The pyramid, facing south, was built as the principal monument of the Moon Pyramid complex. The five-tiered platform was attached to the front of the Moon Pyramid. It is said that the present pyramid has interior structures within it. However, the pyramid still remains as one of the least understood major monuments in Teotihuacan.
The city was highly planned symmetrically and was integrated into the local geography. This may be realized by standing on the center line of the Avenue of the Dead, namely on the main axis of the city.
The top of mountain Cerro Gordo dominating the background of the Moon Pyramid exactly coincides at a certain point of the avenue with the top of the pyramid - a pan-Mesoamerican notion that the pyramid represents a sacred mountain seems to have been an integral element of the city plan. The Avenue of the Dead begins at the Moon Plaza, which was surrounded by 15 pyramidal structures including the Moon Pyramid.
The Quetzalpapalotl Palace lies immediately to the southwest of the Moon Plaza. Like the Main Plaza in the Ciudadela, the Moon Plaza seem to have been one of the main ritual precincts of the city.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y n o a n c i e n t T e o t i h u a c a n o n o n - i d e o g r a p h i c t e x t s a r e k n o w n t o e x i s t ( o r k n o w n t o h a v e e x i s t e d ) , b u t t h e c i t y i s o c c a s i o n a l l y r e f e r r e d t o i n t h e t e x t s o f M a y a m o n u m e n t s , s h o w i n g t h a t T e o t i h u a ca n n o b i l i t y t r a v e l l e d t o a n d m a r r i e d w i t h t h e f a m i l i e s o f l o c a l r u l e r s a s f a r a w a y a s H o n d u r a s .
M a y a h i e r o g l y p h s m e n t i o n a n i n d i v i d u a l n i c k n a m e d b y s c h o l a r s a s S p e a r t h r o w e r O w l , a p p a r e n t l y E m p e r o r o f T e o t i h u a can , w h o r e i g n e d f o r o v e r 6 0 y e a r s a n d i m p o s e d h i s r e l a t i v e s a s k i n g s o f T i k a l a n d U a x a c t u n i n G u a t e m a l a . M o s t o f w h a t w e i n f e r a b o u t t h e c u l t u r e a t T e o t i h u acan c o m e s f r o m t h e m u r a l s t h a t a d o r n t h e s i t e a n d o t h e r s , l i k e t h e W a g n e r M u r a l s , f o u n d i n p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n s .
I t w a s p r e v i o u s l y b e l i e v e d t h a t s o m e t i m e d u r i n g t h e 7 t h o r 8 t h c e n t u r i e s , t h e c i t y w a s s a c k e d a n d b u r n e d b y i n v a d e r s , p o s s i b l y t h e T o l t e c s . M o r e r e c e n t e v i d e n c e , h o w e v e r , s e e m s t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e b u r n i n g w a s l i m i t e d t o t h e s t r u c t u r e s a n d d w e l l i n g s a s s o c i a t e d p r i m a r i l y w i t h t h e e l i t e c l a s s . T h e s l u m s a n d p o o r e r d i s t r i c t s w e r e a l m o s t u n t o u c h e d .
M a n y n o w c l a i m t h i s i s e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e b u r n i n g w a s f r o m a n i n t e r n a l u p r i s i n g a n d t h a t t h e i n v a s i o n t h e o r y i s f l a w e d d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t e a r l y a r c h a e o l o g i c a l w o r k o n t h e c i t y w a s f o c u s e d e x c l u s i v e l y o n t h e p a l a c e s a n d t e m p l e s , p l a c e s u s e d b y t h e e l i t e s , a n d b e c a u s e a l l o f t h e s e s i t e s s h o w e d b u r n i n g .
A r c h a e o l o g i s t s c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e w h o l e c i t y w a s b u r n e d . I n s t e a d , i t i s n o w k n o w n t h a t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n i n t h e c i t y w a s f o c u s e d o n t h e p o w e r s y m b o l s : S o m e s t a t u e s s e e m t o h a v e b e e n d e s t r o y e d i n a m e t h o d i c a l w a y , t h e i r f r a g m e n t s d i s p e r s e d . T h e f a c t t h a t p o p u l a t i o n b e g a n t o d e c l i n e a r o u n d 5 0 0 - 6 0 0 C E a l s o s u p p o r t s t h e i n t e r n a l u n r e s t h y p o t h e s i s .
I n r e b u t t a l , a d v o c a t e s o f t h e i n v a s i o n h y p o t h e s i s p o i n t t o t h e m u r a l p a i n t i n g s o f C a c a x t l a , a r i v a l c i t y , i n w h i c h w a s f o u n d a b a t t l e p a i n t i n g f e a t u r i n g t h e g l y p h o f T e o t i h u a can o v e r a b u r n i n g p y r a m i d , t h e M e s o a m e r i c a n s y m b o l o f a c o n q u e r e d c i t y , w h i c h c o u l d m e a n t h a t t h e r e r e a l l y w a s a n a t t a c k o n T e o t i h u a can , l e d b y C a c a x t l a . H o w e v e r , i t w a s n o t u n k n o w n f o r a n c i e n t r u l e r s t o f a l s e l y c l a i m v i c t o r y o v e r f o e s .
Comparative Geometric Analysis of the Heights and Bases of the Great Pyramid of Khufu and the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan ...
Tula is a town of about 10,000 in Hidalgo State, central Mexico, some 100 km to the north-north-west of Mexico City. The modern town is known as Tula de Allende; it covers part of the south-eastern portion of the Pre-Columbian city.
N e a r b y a r e t h e r e m a i n s o f t h e a n c i e n t c a p i t a l c i t y o f t h e T o l t e c s , a l s o k n o w n a s " T u l a " o r a s " T o l l a n " . U s u a l l y i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e T o l t e c c a p i t a l a r o u n d 9 8 0 A D , t h e c i t y w a s d e s t r o y e d i n o r a b o u t 1 1 6 8 o r 1 1 7 9 . T h e s i t e i s a t a n d a r o u n d t h e j u n c t i o n o f t h e Rio R o s a s a n d t he Rio T u l a .
T h e t w o l a r g e s t c l u s t e r s o f g r a n d c e r e m o n i a l a r c h i t e c t u r e a r e n i c k n a m e d " T u l a G r a n d e " ( t h e m o s t v i s i t e d b y t o u r i s t s ) a n d " T u l a C h i c o " . R e m a i n s o f o t h e r b u i l d i n g s e x t e n d f o r s o m e d i s t a n c e i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s . I n t h e r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s s t r e e t s w e r e l a i d o u t i n a g r i d p a t t e r n .
T h e c i t y w a s t h e l a r g e s t i n c e n t r a l M e x i c o i n t h e 9 t h a n d 1 0 t h c e n t u r i e s , c o v e r i n g a n a r e a o f s o m e 1 2 kms w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n o f a t l e a s t s o m e 3 0 , 0 0 0 , p o s s i b l y s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e . W h i l e i t m i g h t h a v e b e e n t h e l a r g e s t c i t y i n M e s o a m e r i c a a t t h e t i m e , s o m e M a y a s i t e s i n t h e Y u ctan m a y h a v e r i v a l e d i t s p o p u l a t i o n d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d .
D i s t i n c t i v e T o l t e c f e a t u r e s h e r e i n c l u d e t e r r a c e d p y r a m i d s , c o l o n n a d e d b u i l d i n g s , a n d r e l i e f s c u l p t u r e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c h a c m o o l s , r e c l i n i n g f i g u r e s t h a t m a y h a v e b e e n a v a t a r s o f t h e R a i n G o d . T h e r e a r e t w o l a r g e c o u r t s f o r p l a y i n g t h e M e s o a m e r i c a n b a l l g a m e .
S o m e o f t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t a t C h i c h e n I t z a . T h e s i t e w a s e x t e n s i v e l y l o o t e d i n A z t e c t i m e s , w i t h m u c h o f t h e a r t w o r k a n d s c u l p t u r e c a r t e d o f f . T h e f i r s t s c h o l a r l y d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r u i n s w a s m a d e b y A n t o n i o G a r c Ě a C u b a s o f t h e M e x i c a n S o c i e t y o f G e o g r a p h y a n d H i s t o r y i n 1 8 7 3 .
El Tajín is a Pre-Columbian archaeological site near the city of Papantla, in the state of Veracruz, Mexico.
Construction of ceremonial buildings at El Tajín began about the 1st century. Early classic Tajín shows influence of Teotihuacan; early postclassic shows considerable Toltec influence. Construction continued to about the start of the 13th century, at which time the city was conquered and burned by Chichimec invaders. The site continued to be occupied after this by a smaller population, but no new large construction projects were initiated. The site was completely abandoned with the arrival of the Spanish conquerors in the early 16th century.
The abandoned site was overgrown with forest. In 1785 engineer Diego Ruiz visited the site and published the first description of the site. In the early 19th century it was visited by Guillermo Dupaix, Alexander von Humboldt, and Carlos Nebel, who published additional accounts.The first archeological excavation of the site was made by Jose Garcia Payon from 1943 through 1963. The Mexican Institute of Anthropology & History has made additional restoration to buildings at the site since the 1980s.
The ceremonial center of the site is covers only about 1 km square, but there are mostly unexcavated remains of subsidiary buildings extending for a considerable distance beyond.The ceremonial center has number of temple-pyramids, palaces, and several courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame.
The site's most famous building is the Pyramid of the Niches. The step pyramid of 6 terraces is some 60 feet high. The size is only medium as Mesoamerican pyramids go, but the architecture creates a striking and visually pleasing effect. The terraces are of well cut stone forming a series of 365 niches. A staircase rises up the pyramid's east side. Originally the pyramid was topped by a temple, but little remains of this.
A number of the buildings have carved relief on them, and the site also has some free standing stone stelae. Many of the sculptures depict the ritual ballgame and ritual bloodletting by the elite. The site is now a tourism destination, has a moderate sized museum.
Monte Albán is a large archaeological site in the state of Oaxaca, Mexico, located at 17.02° N 96.45° W, elevation 1941 meters.The name "Monte Albán" means "White Mountain" in the Spanish language; the Zapotec name was Danipaguache, meaning "Sacred Mountain of Life".
The Aztecs knew it as Ocelotepec, or "Jaguar Mountain".
This sacred Mesoamerican city is on an artificially flattened mountain top some 400 meters above the city of Oaxaca.
Monte Albán was built over a period of over 2,000 years, starting about 900 BCE, by the Zapotec people. The early art shows Olmec influence. The most impressive building period was during the Mesoamerican Classic era, from about 550 CE to 1000 CE.
|About 1300 CE, the Zapotec were driven out of the site and surrounding area by the Mixtec people. The Mixtec made further additions to Monte Albán until they in turn were conquered by the Spanish Conquistadores in 1521, at which time Monte Albán was abandoned.
Monte Albán has many step-pyramids, temples, elite tombs, and a court for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame. There are also free-standing sculptured stelae, and large bas-relief carved panels in some of the buildings.
The oldest carved stones at the site are the so-called "Danzantes" (literally, dancers), featuring drawings of people in contorted and twisted poses. Although the notion that they depict a dance is generally discredited now, there is still little agreement on what exactly the figures represent, but many archaeologists think that the "dancers" are representations of tortured war prisoners. Some of the original stones can be viewed in the museum at the site.
Building J (the arrowhead-shaped building shown in the top picture) has also invited much speculation, due to its unusual shape and orientation. Alfonso Caso suggested it was an astrological observatory, though other theories have been offered.
MESOAMERICAN CIVILIZATIONS
CRYSTALINKS MAILING LIST, NEWSLETTER, UPDATES